European and Chinese exchange: Chine de commande (and Euroiserie)
By T.M. (Toussaint) Verkoulen
From 1680 on, Chinese porcelain artisans dedicated more effort to meeting the preferences of Western customers. They embraced Western styles more and more often crafting items like coffee- and chocolate pots, butter dishes, spittoons and other household utensils in Chinese porcelain; all tailored to suit the European demand. The porcelain on demand or “chine-de-commande” already started when the Portuguese influenced Chinese potters in the 16th century. The Portuguese, who were the first European merchants in China, arrived in 1514 in Guangzhou (Canton). After several decades they were asking for specific forms and shapes which did not exist in China. Many of these shape designs were directly inspired by European silverware, pewter and earthenware. However, Chinese artisans encountered challenges with three-dimensional objects in Western shape. In some cases, European examples were brought to Jingdezhen such that the Chinese potters could meet the European shapes the best. These were drawings or dummies of wood and earthenware. For example, in 1751, samples of strawberry bowls and herring containers were brought to China by the Dutch East India Company.
From around 1700 Chinese export porcelain began to feature not only European Shapes but more often Western decorations on demand. They depict mythological scenes such as ‘Venus and Hermes,’ religious subjects like ‘The Baptism of Christ’ and ‘Madonna and Child,’ and even political events such as the ‘Rotterdam Riots’ (Dutch Kosterman uprising of 1690). Also, these motifs were sometimes a challenge for the Chinese artisans: it has happened that the Chinese porcelain painters applied the indications from the sent examples (e.g. prints), such as the word 'colour', on the porcelain. Also, family weapons on porcelain can in exceptions be found turned upside down.
The production of armorial plates with coat of arms of European families begins on a larger scale from 1720 onwards. Nevertheless, there are also rare Kangxi period examples of armorial plates. Even very rare Ming-dynasty (1368-1644) Wanli decorated porcelain with coat of arms can be found from around 1600. Most of the Chinese porcelain was (and still is) produced in this small town in the Jiangxi province called “cidu” (‘the porcelain capital’) by locals. The 18th century armorial plates and other chine de commande decorated porcelain are usually painted in Canton and not Jingdezhen. The decoration is in this case mostly done in overglazed ‘encre de chine’ (grisaille) or enamels. On the other hand, commande decoration in underglaze blue was probably made in Jingdezhen. A possible reason why chine de commande decorated porcelain was finished in Canton is that the client could control their order and could give instructions to carry out their example the best for the Western taste.
The Chine de commande production is an exception and has been mainly facilitated through private traders, who were often staff of the East India Companies using the allowance of private trading items. A reason for this is that the production of porcelain with Western subjects was not profitable, so it can hardly be found on remaining Dutch East Indian Company inventory lists. According to research by T. Volker and C.J.A. Jörg we can estimate that less than five percent of the approximately 185 million of the total exported pieces from China to Europe between 1550 and 1800 has been decorated according to European motives. The other pieces exported contained the ‘normal’ Chinese decoration and motifs such as pagoda’s, peony’s and Long Eliza’s, but also this kind of decoration was produces specific for the west.
It was not only the European continent that had a fascination about Chinese craftmanship and knowledge. In fact, there was also a Qing imperial taste for the West that can be called ‘Euroiserie’ or ‘Occidenterie’. The Kangxi emperor (1661-1722) and the Qianlong emperor (1736-1795) are also known for their acquisition of European imports such as glass, sliver, clocks and their employment of Jesuit artists. Jesuit artists in China were primarily missionaries who were skilled in various fields, including art, science, and mathematics. During the 16th to 18th centuries, Jesuit missionaries from Europe, particularly from Italy and Portugal, were sent to China. One example is Father Jean-Denis Attiret (1702-1768) a French Jesuit who had influence on the Chinese imperial court. He became painter to the emperor and participated, in collaboration with the Italian Jesuit Giuseppe Castiglione (1688-1766), in the execution of drawings celebrating Qianlong’s victories in northern China during the 1750s. Another Jesuit, Father Michel Benoît (1715-74), an astronomer by profession, also impressed the court with his skills as an architect and hydraulic engineer. He worked on several construction of certain palaces and ornamental waterworks the Forbidden City. The peak of Chinese material engagement with the West occurred during the 18th century. European engravings played a key role in the transmission of visual culture during the reign Qianlong. The Jesuits in China had extensive libraries of books and prints at their disposal in Peking, including many illustrated books and suites of prints of the architecture and gardens at Versailles.
Source: D.S. Howard, “A tale of three cities Canton, Sanghai & Hong Kong”, 1997.
K. Kleutghen, “Imperial Illusions: Crossing Pictorial Boundaries in the Qing Palaces”, 2016.
R.C Po “Tea, Porcelain, and Silk: Chinese Exports to the West in the Early Modern Period”, 2018.
Smogy "China at Versailles. Art and Diplomacy in the 18th Century”, 2014.
T. Ghieler “The Ceramics of Eurasia How export porcelain has shaped a globalized world”, 2019.
The trade between the Dutch East India Company and China
By C.C. (Camille) Verkoulen
In the early 17th century, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) sent envoys to Canton to explore trade opportunities. At that time, the Dutch already had set in Batavia (Jakarta) and Formosa (Taiwan). Initially, the Chinese authorities in Beijing had a negative response to the arrival of the Dutch, known for their warlike nature. However, merchants in Canton showed interest. Still, the VOC faced severe rules upon arriving in Canton, emphasizing the Chinese desire for minimal interference from foreigners, though trade relations proved lucrative. The Co Hong, a group of Chinese merchants, mediated interactions between the VOC and Chinese authorities, managing trade while enabling the bureaucrats to maintain control over taxes. The VOC's journey to China commenced from Batavia (where they set there headquarter) in July or August, navigating through various islands and reaching Canton via Macao after a month. Upon arrival, meticulous rituals, including drinking wine (the Chinese love sweet wine from The Cape, which the VOC ship passed on its way to Batavia), presenting gifts, and measuring the ship for import duties, were performed to obtain permission to trade. For the Geldermalsen, the charges for the ship measuring were 45,613 guilders. After these charges were paid, the Chinese officials give permission for trade. However, the crew remained in Whampoa while merchants engaged in trade. At Whampoa, the ship was set at anchor. This was the closest place to Canton that the ship still could reach.The river up to Canton became too narrow there and the VOC merchants continued by sloop.
During the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) engaged in sporadic trade in Canton, primarily focusing on purchasing silk and porcelain. However, significant changes occurred in the 18th century when tea became increasingly popular in Europe. This newfound demand for tea prompted the VOC to establish a more regular presence in Canton. Despite strict control by the Chinese authorities through designated merchants and regulations, the profitability of the tea trade encouraged the Dutch and other Europeans to persist in trading in Canton. In 1729, the VOC was allowed to set a factory in Canton, resulting in the first direct access for trade in the mainland of China. The factory in Canton housed various personnel and functioned under the Principal and senior merchants' administration. This factory was located outside the city walls of Canton and should be rented by the Dutch (owning the place was not allowed). During quieter seasons, a reduced staff remained in the factory while others stayed in a rented house in Macao. Internal tensions often arose among the crew in Canton, leading to occasional punishments for misconduct, reflecting the VOC's accountability for Dutch behavior.
The Heren XVII, the VOC's governing body, had precise orders for ships returning from China, specifying the types of wares to be brought back. They aimed for low-profit margins on high-volume sales, making auctions of these wares very profitable. Tea trade was a significant focus, with stringent quality checks and categorization into black and green tea. Porcelain was also a sought-after commodity, evolving from luxury to widespread demand for items like plates, bowls, and tea sets. The VOC preferred items as plates and bowls to more exceptional pieces (such as Chine de Commande porcelain) due to the constant demand of more regular porcelain and its higher profit margin. Also, the staff of the VOC was allowed for ‘smuggling’, meaning that they could take their own wares for personal trade or as a souvenir. The quantity of the ‘smuggling’ ware was based on your rank, that determined the size of the personal chest on board.
Trade in 1751/1752, when The Geldermalsen was active, can be marked as an average season for the VOC with multiple vessels arriving from Batavia. After staying for 5 months in Canton, the ship left, intended to return to Batavia. The cargo worth of the Geldermalsen was more than 700,000 guilders, eventually ending up all on the bottom of the sea.
Source: C.J.A. Jörg, “The Geldermalsen history and porcelain”, 1986.